world history.

VI. What motivated “new imperialism,” and why did it boom in the late 1800s and not earlier?

 

The desire to secure and enhance European enterprises motivated new imperialism; it boomed in the late 1800s because the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th Century allowed for the development of sophisticated technologies which Europeans could use to further conquer other nations who possessed inferior technologies to that of theirs. The industrial revolution gave rise to profitable industries which further engendered the desire to maintain and augment their enterprises. Profitable industries called for the supply of raw materials, and by establishing colonies, imperialists believed that these colonies could serve as a reliable source for raw materials, such as cotton, copper, iron and rubber. Rubber trees were indigenous and abundant in Africa, which drove industrialized nations to imperialize African lands. India possessed spices, cotton, and other raw materials, which incentivized the British to colonize them; by obtaining Indian cotton cheaply, they ship it off to European industries to produce profitable goods. Furthermore, colonies also served as a marketplace for consumers, like how the British sold their manufactured products made by cotton back to the Indians during the British Raj, and how they enforced a “sphere of influence” on the Qing empire in the 1800s, selling their abundant supply of opium to the Chinese. The British free trade policy and excessive funneling of opium threatened the favorable balance of trade in China, which also resulted in detrimental effects on the Chinese citizens (they became addicted to opium). This led to the First Opium War of 1839-42, after China finally rejected trade with Britain; however, with the advantage of sophisticated weapons as a result of industrialism, such as muskets and artillery, the strong firepower of the British Navy easily defeated China and were able to enforce their imperial rule and trade policies onto the Chinese empire. The British gunboat Nemesis drove up the Yangzi River in 1842 and concluded the Opium War by devastating Chinese junks; the gunboat was a product of the industrial revolution. Without the sophisticated weapons and technology, the British may not have triumphed in the battle, which is why they did not attempt to engage in conflict with China before the Industrial Revolution and without the capable technology that could defeat them.

 

Nationalism and humanitarian causes also played a role in motivating new imperialism, along with political agendas. Imperialists established colonies as a means of acquiring bases around the world, such as establishing harbors or supply station for naval and commercial ships; their motives for doing so included a combination of reasons: these acquired bases served as a “power projection” to exhibit the imperialist country’s prestige and power, it served as a defense against rival empires, and it also facilitated trade and the distribution of goods around the world. Furthermore, Humanitarian causes also motivated new imperialism, such as the desire to provide aid and spread knowledge, especially medicine, Christianity and law. With the development of new medicine, doctors had a desire to spread their newfound miracle of a cure or prevention to a disease; missionaries had a desire to enlighten others and to proselytize them into Christians; colonial officers possessed a sense of duty to “spread law” and enforce social stability in lands overseas. The ability to bring these ideas and people to overseas colonies was made possible by ships and steam-powered gunboats. Many European imperialists could not make it through inland Africa safely before the 1800s due to the lack of capable transportation; however, after the industrial revolution, the development of such transportation such as steam-powered gunboats allowed them to travel to inland sites throughout Asia and Africa and conquer these lands.       

 

V. Why did Marxism gain such little hold among the British working class? Which reforms assuaged the working class?

27/01/2016

 

Broadly, Marxism gained such a little hold among the British working class because England had a well-established and stable central government, whereas, in France, the government was essentially an autocracy, in which a dictator exercised complete control over the nation state. The central government of the United Kingdom was the Parliament of England; the Parliament was the key to stability in the nation. Marxism did not gain hold among the British working class because they didn’t feel the need of taking such radical actions to call for change; they were adequately satisfied with other legal methods of doing so available to them-- and the path to change for them was through the Parliament. With the established Parliament in England, there are representatives of various areas in England within the Parliament; a spokesperson for each city, a mouthpiece to voice the demands of English citizens. These representatives in Parliament were part of the House of Commons. Those who were often elected were usually middle-class citizens in power, also known as the bourgeoisie; they were educated and open-minded, which allowed them to speak on the behalf of a large population that included citizens from the working-lower class. It was because of this body of representative that allowed the Parliament to be responsive towards the demands of the English citizens.

 

In addition, citizens who were dissatisfied with the status quo could petition to the Parliament; they could request for reforms, and the Parliament is obliged to consider these proposals. For example, the Chartist    

Movement which began in the 1830s urged Parliament to implement democratic reforms that may give working class citizens more rights and power in deciding who gets to rule them; they drafted the People’s Charter in 1838 and outlined a list of reforms which they wanted Parliament to take on. Although their petition was repeatedly rejected by Parliament at the time, their proposals would be eventually established, such as in the Third Reform Act of 1884 where the Secret Ballot, one of the Chartists’ demands, was established. The Great Reform Act of 1832 was one of the most significant reforms in England, since it redistributed the seats in parliament to representatives of areas or cities with a large population, and as mentioned earlier, these representatives made up the House of Commons.Various reforms assuaged the working class, such as universal suffrage and the right for all men to vote in Parliamentary elections, which was achieved by the Fourth Reform Act of 1918. There were other social reforms as well. The Liberties Act of 1850 was one example of a social reform which alleviated the punishments for petty crimes, and the Factory Acts of 1833 included the regulation of working conditions in factories to keep the workers satisfied. The reason to why the British working class was circumvented from being imbued Marxist thought was because although this ideology was available as a tool for them to utilize, the existence of the Parliament made it unnecessary for them to turn to such a radical method. 

 

IV. What were the main similarities and differences between the pathways to democracy in the US, France, and UK in the 19th century?

25/01/2016

 

There were significant similarities between the pathways to democracy in the US, France, and UK. Democracy emerged class to obtain power over decisions made to the state which they reside in and their own lives. One of the main similarities was the establishment of suffrage for men and women of different classes, which was the basis to democracy in the three countries. France achieved universal male suffrage in 1792, UK in 1918 and the US in 1868; women suffrage usually came a few decades later. Prior to universal suffrage in both the UK and US, it began with the fact that only white male citizens who owned property had the right to vote. Additionally, several democratic reforms were enforced to improve the working conditions of workers, including setting minimum wages, maximum work hours, and safety guidelines which workplaces must follow in order to guarantee worker welfare. These reforms significantly improved the lives of working-class citizens. Furthermore, there were racial-discrimination factors that had to be overcome in these nations states to achieve democracy; the African slave trade was deeply entrenched in both the US and UK economies in the 18th Century, and even after the slave trade was abolished in 1807by the United Kingdom, there was heavy discrimination against the African Americans. Jewish people were also being discriminated in France, where in one instance, a high-ranking Jewish general was accused of a certain crime which he didn’t commit; however, he was still sentenced to work at a penal colony anyways. Laws passed in the 19th century abolished such discrimination against different racial ethnicities or religious individuals, which further paved the path towards democracy.

 

There were a few differences between the three nation states as well in regards to how they achieved democracy in the country. While the abolishment of slavery was quite significant in both the UK and the US, slavery was not present in France’s pathway to democracy. Anti-Semitism, the hostility and prejudice against Jews, which in turn launched Zionism, the movement for a Jewish state, was something that was only present in France but not all pathways to democracy. More importantly, the methods in which each country went through to achieve democracy was also vastly different. While a major part of UK and France’s major reforms were achieved through political means, the US only experienced one: the ratification of the Bill of Rights. Moreover, France is the only country out of the three to have experienced major revolutions which involved the establishment and demolition of multiple governments. The Revolution of 1830 resulted in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, and Revolution of 1840 resulted in the formation Second Republic which later became the Second Empire under Napoleon III until a provisional which became the Third Republic was set up. Lastly, the three countries differ in the actual system of democracy they developed into. UK developed into a parliamentary monarchy, US became a presidential monarchy, and France formed semi-presidential system.

 

III. Why did China flourish and then fall behind the west? 

By: Salina Kuo 

 

The Chinese Empire flourished throughout the period of Imperial China, and for several hundred years, China was the world's leading empire. So, what exactly happened to China? China flourished and then fell behind the West because of their belief in their own superiority. As a result of this, they followed a Confucian-based bureaucracy, withdrew its navy, and isolated itself from certain aspects of trade. China followed a Confucian-based bureaucracy, and believed that they should prioritize the needs of their own people first, and integrate their wealth into their own Kingdom instead of using it for overseas trading and commerce. As a result of not promoting commercial capitalism, when the time came, it was difficult for the country to adapt with the rest of the world and implement changes to move forward with the global economy. Another significant contributor to China's decline as when it withdrew from the Indian Ocean its vast navy. Although its contribution to the economy was minor, it provided jobs for the crew and shipbuilders. The withdrawal of the navy deprived these occupations from the people; thus, leading to the decline of the Chinese economy, since a portion of the population was left jobless. 

 

China began to decline when it decided to isolate itself from certain aspects of trade, like when it prohibited maritime shipping. They wanted to conserve their traditions, and limit outside influence; therefore, they looked down at foreigners. Conversely, United States and Europe began to expand trade, and as a result, gained wealth through this. By preventing shipping, this prevented China from importing/exporting goods, which was a significant factor in the growth of a nation’s economy, since import/export leads to profit and capital accumulation. Through trade, the United States and Europe managed to receive various type of goods, as well as to export their manufactured ones. China initially flourished because before it was one large empire, it had started out as several different regions and states dispersed throughout Asia. Gradually, all the regions were merged through conquering of different lands, and assimilated the population together. 

 

As a result of China's arrogance, it led to their own decline and stagnation. By commiting their empire to the Confucian-based bureaucracy, they neglected the most important aspect of boosting the economy, which was commercial capitalism.  Furthermore, it led to their withdrawel of their navy because they wanted to defend their empire from the reemergence of the Mongols. They also wanted to protect their traditions, so they restricted international trade to limit foreign influence. All this contributed to their stagnation and decline.  

 

II. To what extent was the Reformation a political movement as opposed to a religious one?

By: Salina Kuo 

 

The Reformation started out as a religious movement, and was in fact, more of one rather than a political movement, throughout the Renaissance period. However, the Reformation did indeed influence political changes in Europe, though not as much as it did religiously. The Reformation was initiated by Martin Luther, because he believed that there was corruption within the Papacy, and wanted to expose it; indulgences were being sold by the Catholic Church for people to be granted early leave from purgatory for their sins. The 95 Theses written by Martin Luther provides various examples of how his goals toward reformation were purely religious. He states the duties and obligations of a Christian person, and how buying indulgances would be defying the qualities of a true Christian. For example, thesis number 46 states that a faithful Christian man must reserve his/her money for their family, rather than spending it on indulgences, unless they have a surplus. He does not mention any political aspects in his theses. Furthermore, in Martin Luther's Letter to Nobility, he stresses the luxury in which the pope lives in, and how God would not approve of it, because around him, there are others who live in poverty while he squander away his wealth on shiny and unnecessary things. These reasons are all religious. 

 

The Reformation also led to the Peace of Augsburg, which officially 'permitted' Lutheranism and Catholicism in Germany, and settled the religious dispute between the Lutheran Princes and Charles V. It approved for the followers of each faith to move to the area of land which was more congenial to their faith. Those who followed Lutheranism went to Northern Germany, and Catholicism to the South. However, Lutheranism and the Reformation also led to the Peasants' Revolt, which was more or less a political matter. Peasants and rebels utilized the idea of Lutheranism to go against the 'government' and the traditional hierarchy of the time; they demanded to end serfdom. This was never Martin Luther's intention; he never wanted to tread waters in political territory. The Reformation also brought in John Calvin, who introduced Theocracy in Geneva; a clergy-run government. This later contributed to the ongoing conflict and wars with the Catholic Church. This was both a religious and political matter. 

 

The Reformation also formed Sects, which were various religious groups that emerged and broke off from the Church. All of this led to a religious turmoil in Europe. Secular lords used this opportunity to weaken the power and authority of the papacy, and tried to sieze land from Christendom. This led to political conflict. During Queen Elizabeth's reign, a compromise was proposed for both Protestant and Catholic practices, which would then end the religious conflict in Europe, and settle matters permanently. Later on, Pope Paul III would seek to reform the Catholic Church, and restore traditional catholic views. For all these reasons, and evidence, the Reformation was both a political and religious movement, but had more of a signifcant impact on religious changes. 

 

I. Why were the ideas of the Renaissance considered such a departure from the medieval period, and so critical for the development of the modern intellectual tradition?

By: Salina Kuo 

 

The ideas of the Renaissance were considered such a departure from the medieval period because it marked the shift from depending on the Catholic Church, to relying more on science and inductive reasoning, as well as focusing more on liberal arts, and life before death. The Middle Ages depended signifcantly on the Catholic Church, and those who lived during the time strongly believed in the afterlife, and did everything during life in hopes of achieving a prosperous afterlife. Also, people in the Medieval period performed ridiculous tasks for the sake of religion, such as having ordeals to decide whether someone was innocent or guilty. This was a completely illogical method, since it was obvious that in these situations, the person will not pass the ordeal. 

 

Another aspect of why the ideas of the Renassance were considered a departure from the middle ages was because scholars and philosephes has gone back to the ideas and thinking of famous Greek philosophers, such as Aristotle and Plato, and are more focused in the arts, rather than religion. This was critical for the development of the modern intellectual tradition because today, instead of worshipping an intangible and unseen 'force' or god, we rely heavily on inductive reasoning to progress science, and solve everyday problems. We also focus on issues now instead of hoping for a better life after death.